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Title: Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science
Author(s): Richard Saferstein
Publisher: Pearson Prentice Hall
ISBN: ISBN-13: 978-0-13-111852-2
ISBN-10: 0-13-111852-8
Library of Congress:

About the Author(s)

Richard Saferstein, Ph.D., retired in 1991 after serving 21 years as the Chief Forensic Scientist of the New Jersey State Police Laboratory, one of the largest crime laboratories in the United States. He currently acts as a consultant for attorneys and the media in the area of forensic science. During the O. J. Simpson criminal trial, Dr. Saferstein provided extensive commentary on forensic aspects of the case for the Rivera Live show, the E! television network, ABC radio, and various radio talk shows. Dr. Saferstein holds degrees from the City College of New York and earned his doctorate degree in chemistry in 1970 from the City University of New York.

From 1972 to 1991, he taught an introductory forensic science course in the criminal justice programs at the College of New Jersey and Ocean County College. These teaching experiences played an influential role in Dr. Saferstein’s authorship in 1977 of the widely used introductory textbook Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, currently in this eighth edition. Saferstein’s basic philosophy in writing Criminalistics is to make forensic science understandable and meaningful to the nonscience reader, while giving the reader an appreciation for the scientific principles that underlie the subject.

Dr. Saferstein currently teaches a course on the role of the expert witness in the courtroom at the law school of Widener University in Wilmington, Delaware. He has authored or co-authored more than 35 technical papers covering a variety of forensic topics. Dr. Saferstein has co-authored Lab Manual for Criminalistics (Prentice Hall, 2004) to be used in conjunction with this text. He has also edited the widely used professional reference books Forensic Science Handbook, Volume I, 2nd edition (Prentice Hall, 2002) and Forensic Science Handbook, Volumes II and III (Prentice Hall, 1988, 1993). Dr. Saferstein is a member of the American Chemical Society, the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, the Forensic Science Society of England, the Canadian Society of Forensic Scientists, the International Association for Identification, the Mid-Atlantic Association of Forensic Scientists, the Northeastern Association of Forensic Scientists, the Northwestern Association of Forensic Scientists, and the Society of Forensic Toxicologists.

Preface

Few could have envisioned just a few years ago how ingrained the subject of forensic science would become in our television culture. Perhaps we can attribute our obsession with forensic science to the yearnings of a society bent on apprehending criminals but desirous of a system of justice that ensures the correctness of its verdicts. The level of sophistication that forensic science has brought to criminal investigations is awesome. This eighth edition of Criminalistics and its predecessors have aimed to make the subject comprehensible to a wide variety of readers who are or plan to be aligned with the forensic science profession, as well as to those who have a curiosity about the subject’s underpinnings.

One of the constants of forensic science is how frequently its applications become front-page news. Whether the story is sniper shootings or the tragic consequences of the terrorist attacks of 9/11/01, forensic science is at the forefront of the public response. The horror of the terrorist attacks exemplified the critical role DNA has come to play in identifying victims of mass disaster. In this new century, the science of DNA profiling has altered the complexion of criminal investigation. DNA collected from saliva on a cup or from dandruff or sweat on a hat exemplifies the emergence of nontraditional forms of evidence collection at crime scenes. Currently the criminal justice system is creating vast DNA data banks designed to snare the criminal who is unaware of the consequence of leaving the minutest quantity of biological material behind at a crime scene.

During the highly publicized O. J. Simpson criminal and civil trials, forensic scientists systematically placed Simpson at the crime scene through DNA analyses, hair and fiber comparisons, and footwear impressions. As millions of Americans watched the case unfold, they, in a sense, became students of forensic science. Intense media coverage of the crime-scene search and investigation, as well as the ramifications of findings of physical evidence at the crime scene, all became the subject of study, commentary, and conjecture.

For those of us who have taught forensic science in the classroom, it comes as no surprise that forensic science can grab and hold the attention of those who otherwise would have no interest in any area of science. The O. J. Simpson case amply demonstrates how intertwined criminal investigation has become with forensic science. Through eight editions, Criminalistics has striven to depict the role of the forensic scientist in the criminal justice system. The current edition builds on the content of its predecessors and updates the reader on the latest technologies available to crime laboratory personnel. Like all facets of modern life, forensic science has been touched by the Internet. This new edition introduces the reader to basic concepts of Internet use and encourages exploration of Web sites particularly relevant to forensic science and criminal investigation.

Making science relevant and pertinent to the interests and goals of the student is a desirable but often elusive goal of educators. Criminalistics strives to meet this goal by, first and foremost, explaining the techniques, skills, and limitations of the modern crime laboratory to a reader who has no background in the forensic sciences. The nature of physical evidence is defined, and the limitations that technology and current knowledge impose on its individualization and characterization are examined.

A major portion of the text centers on discussions of the common items of physical evidence encountered at crime scenes. These chapters include descriptions of forensic analysis, as well as updated techniques for the proper collection and preservation of evidence at crime scenes. Particular attention is paid to the meaning and role of probability in interpreting the evidential significance of scientifically evaluated evidence.

The implications of DNA profiling are important enough to warrant their inclusion in a separate chapter in Criminalistics. The topic of DNA is described in a manner that is comprehensible and relevant to readers who lack a scientific background. The discussion defines DNA and explains its central role in controlling the body’s chemistry. Finally, the chapter explains the process of DNA typing and illustrates its application to criminal investigations through the presentation of actual case histories.

The content of Criminalistics is a reflection of the author’s experience both as an active forensic scientist and as an instructor of forensic science at the college level. No prior knowledge of scientific principles or techniques is assumed of the reader. The areas of chemistry and biology relating to the analysis of physical evidence are presented with a minimum of scientific terminology and equations. The discussion involving chemistry and biology is limited to a minimum core of facts and principles that will make the subject matter comprehensible and meaningful to the nonscientist. Although it is not the intent of this book to make scientists or forensic experts of the reader, it will certainly be gratifying if the book motivates some students to seek further scientific knowledge and perhaps direct their education toward a career in forensic science.

Although Criminalistics is an outgrowth of a one-semester course offered as part of a criminal justice program at many New Jersey colleges, its subject matter is not limited to the college student. Optimum utilization of crime laboratory services requires that criminal investigators have a knowledge of the techniques and capabilities of the laboratory that extends beyond any summary that may be gleaned from departmental brochures dealing with the collection and packaging of physical evidence.

Only by combining a knowledge of the principles and techniques of forensic science with logic and common sense will the investigator gain comprehensive insight into the meaning and significance of physical evidence and its role in criminal investigations. Forensic science begins at the crime scene. If the investigator cannot recognize, collect, and package evidence properly, no amount of equipment or expertise will salvage the situation.

Likewise, there is a dire need to bridge the “communication gap” that currently exists among lawyers, judges, and the forensic scientist. An intelligent evaluation of the scientist’s data and any subsequent testimony will again depend on familiarity with the underlying principles of forensic science.

Too many practitioners of the law profess ignorance of the subject or attempt to gain a superficial understanding of its meaning and significance only minutes before meeting the expert witness. It is hoped that the book will provide a painless route to comprehending the nature of the science.

In order to merge theory with practice, a number of actual forensic case histories are included in the text. The intent is for these illustrations to move forensic science from the domain of the abstract into the real world of criminal investigation.

Contents

Preface XIII About the Author XVII CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1; Definition and Scope of Forensic Science 1 History and Development of Forensic Science 2 The Organization of a Crime Laboratory 7 Services of the Crime Laboratory 9 The Functions of the Forensic Scientist 12 Other Forensic Science Services 18 Review Questions 23 Further References 25 Case Reading 26 CHAPTER 2: THE CRIME SCENE 34; Processing the Crime Scene 34 Legal Considerations at the Crime Scene 50 Review Questions 52 Further References 53 Case Reading 54 CHAPTER 3: PHYSICAL EVIDENCE 62; Common Types of Physical Evidence 62 The Significance of Physical Evidence 63 Review Questions 74 Further References 75 Case Reading 75 CHAPTER 4: PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 89: GLASS AND SOIL The Metric System 90 Physical Properties 92 Comparing Glass Fragments 99 Glass Fractures 106 Collection and Preservation of Glass Evidence 109 Forensic Characteristics of Soil 111 Collection and Preservation of Soil Evidence 114 Review Questions 116 Further References 117 CHAPTER 5: ORGANIC ANALYSIS 119 Elements and Compounds 119 Selecting an Analytical Technique 123 Chromatography 124 Spectrophotometry 136 Mass Spectrometry 143 Review Questions 147 Further References 148 CHAPTER 6: INORGANIC ANALYSIS 150: Evidence in the Assassination of President Kennedy 152 The Emission Spectrum of Elements 154 Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer 158 The Origin of Emission and Absorption Spectra 159 Neutron Activation Analysis 162 X-Ray Diffraction 165 Review Questions 167 . Further References 168 CHAPTER 7: THE MICROSCOPE 169 The Compound Microscope 170 The Comparison Microscope 174 The Stereoscopic Microscope 175 The Polarizing Microscope 176 The Microspectrophotometer 178 The Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) 179 Review Questions 184 Further References 185 Case Reading 186 CHAPTER 8: HAIRS, FIBERS, AND PAINT 194 Morphology of Hair 194 Identification and Comparison of Hair 198 Collection and Preservation of Hair Evidence 204 Types of Fibers 205 Identification and Comparison of Man-Made Fibers 210 Collection and Preservation of Fiber Evidence 216 Forensic Examination of Paint 219 Collection and Preservation of Paint Evidence 228 Review Questions 230 Further References 231 CHAPTER 9 DRUGS 233: Drug Dependence 234 Narcotic Drugs 237 Hallucinogens 240 Depressants 245 Stimulants 247 Club Drugs 249 Anabolic Steroids 250 Drug-Control Laws 251 Drug Identification 254 Collection and Preservation of Drug Evidence 260 Review Questions 261 Further References 263 CHAPTER 10 FORENSIC TOXICOLOGY 264: Toxicology of Alcohol 265 The Role of the Toxicologist 283 Techniques Used in Toxicology 284 The Significance of Toxicological Findings 288 The Drug Recognition Expert 289 Review Questions 293 Further References 295 CHAPTER 11 FORENSIC ASPECTS OF ARSON AND EXPLOSION INVESTIGATIONS 296 The Chemistry of Fire 296 Searching the Fire Scene 303 Collection and Preservation of Arson Evidence 305 Analysis of Flammable Residues 307 Types of Explosives 311 Collection and Analysis of Explosives 316 Review Questions 324 Further References 327 CHAPTER 12 FORENSIC SEROLOGY 328 The Nature of Blood 329 Immunoassay Techniques 333 Forensic Characterization of Bloodstains 336 Stain Patterns of Blood 342 Principles of Heredity 346 Forensic Characterization of Semen 348 Collection of Rape Evidence 352 Review Questions 358 Further References 360 CHAPTER 13 DNA: THE INDISPENSABLE FORENSIC SCIENCE TOOL 361 What Is DNA? 361 DNA at Work 364 Replication of DNA 366 Recombinant DNA: Cutting and Splicing DNA 368 DNA Typing 368 Mitochondrial DNA 382 The Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) 389 The Collection and Preservation of Biological Evidence for DNA Analysis 390 Review Questions 397 Further References 399 Case Reading 399 CHAPTER 14 FINGERPRINTS 406 History of Fingerprinting 406 Fundamental Principles of Fingerprints 408 Classification of Fingerprints 414 Automated Fingerprint Identification Systems 415 Methods of Detecting Fingerprints 417 Preservation of Developed Prints 425 Digital Imaging for Fingerprint Enhancement 426 Review Questions 430 Further References 431 CHAPTER 15 FIREARMS, TOOL MARKS, AND OTHER IMPRESSIONS 432 Bullet Comparisons 432 Cartridge Cases 439 Automated Firearm Search Systems 440 Gunpowder Residues 444 Primer Residues on the Hands 448 Serial Number Restoration 451 Collection and Preservation of Firearm Evidence 452 Tool Marks 454 Other Impressions 457 Review Questions 464 Further References 465 CHAPTER 16 DOCUMENT AND VOICE EXAMINATION 466 Handwriting Comparisons 467 Collection of Handwriting Exemplars 469 Typescript Comparisons 471 Photocopier, Printer, and Fax Examination 472 Alterations, Erasures, and Obliterations 474 Other Document Problems 478 Voice Examination 480 Review Questions 487 Further References 488 CHAPTER 17 FORENSIC SCIENCE ON THE INTERNET 489 What Is the Internet? 490 Where to Go on the Internet 491 Exploring Forensic Science on the WWW 496 Web Sites You May Wish to Explore 497 Review Questions 502 Further References 503 CHAPTER 18 THE FUTURE 504 Further References 510 CASE READINGS 511 APPENDICES I Guides to the Collection of Physical Evidence-FBI 543 II Instructions for Collecting Gunshot Residue (GSR) 558 III FBI Policy for Submitting DNA Evidence 560 IV Chromatographic and Spectrophotometric Parameters for Figures Contained within the Text 562 V Chemical Formulas for Latent Fingerprint Development 564 VI Chemical Formulas for Development of Footwear Impressions in Blood 569 ANSWERS 573 INDEX 579