Title:	Criminal Investigation: A Practical Textbook for Magistrates, Police Officers and Lawyers Adapted from the System der Kriminalistik by Dr. Hans Gross, Professor of Criminology at the University of Prague Translated by J. Collyer Adam, Barrister-at-Law, Public Prosecutor, Madras
Author(s):	Hans Gross
Publisher:	Sweet & Maxwell, Limited 2 & 3 Chancery Lane London W.C.2
Copyright:	© 1924
ISBN:
Library of Congress:

Introduction

This book is a practical textbook of instruction for all engaged in investigating crime. It not only deals in detail with subjects coming directly within the province of a criminal investigator, but also informs that official in what cases and in what manner specialists mayor must be resorted to. At what stage of the inquiry the role of the expert begins, depends almost entirely upon the person conducting the inquiry. If the latter is unaware, for example, that a chemist can bring out with the help of his science an almost invisible impression of a finger upon a drinking-glass, there is small chance of the drinking-glass either being examined or ever reaching the chemist’s hands. An investigator with a fair equipment of knowledge will be aware, almost instinctively, just when to invoke the assistance of experts in many cases wherein another would not dream of doing so.

We of course foresee and meet on the threshold the charge of encroaching upon the province, and thereby attempting to dispense with the help, of specialists. Nothing could be more harmful than such advice, nothing could so expose the investigator to mistakes as such fancied independence. But there is a vast gulf between permitting an Investigating Officer to undertake work beyond his sphere and instructing him how to recognize when he ought to resort to experts, what experts should be chosen, and what questions must be submitted to them. Cuilibet in suâ arte perito credendum est.

As a rule, these three considerations alone will present themselves.

But there are also cases, nor, are they extremely rare, where the Investigating Officer must himself play the role of expert.

(1) In all cases where no real experts exist and where a little reflection alone is required; e.g., in cases for falsification of documents, observation of footprints, the deciphering of writing, questions concerning superstition, etc. (2) In the numerous cases where, no expert being at hand, it is necessary for the Investigating Officer to act without delay; for example, make an arrest, conduct a search, or revisit the scene of a crime. The Investigating Officer is often placed in such a situation. He has, for example, to decide whether an incinerated corpse is that of a murdered man or of one, accidentally burnt in a fire. He has no medical expert with him—he has no means of getting one within a reasonable time—he is under the necessity of at once coming to some conclusion on the matter—he must rely entirely upon his own special knowledge; his method of procedure at this moment will have the very greatest influence upon the result of the inquiry. (3) Finally and not the least important, especially as regards India and the Colonies, experts of the first rank are not always to be found. Frequently medical men, even men of long experience, have never learnt the art of drawing up a satisfactory report in a criminal matter. They may know their trade thoroughly and be able to give most useful information, but are incapable in a criminal matter of applying their knowledge and answering questions put to them with any precision. Finally a workman, a hunter, or a cultivator cannot be expected to find just the correct expression or to put into words exactly what he desires to say, especially from the point of view of the Investigating Officer. It must never be forgotten that the best of experts is far from being a criminalist. The Investigating Officer must therefore know something more than what is set out in the Codes, if he wants to obtain answers to the point. And if he is entirely ignorant on all matters connected with outside knowledge, he cannot gain that assistance from specialists which they would otherwise be able to afford.

No doubt the Investigating Officer can find much of the requisite information in a mass of books, yet some is to be found nowhere; as to the hooks themselves, they are not always to his hand, and when he has them at his disposition, he speedily realizes that a man without some knowledge of a subject cannot intelligently use a scientific manual. It is impossible for him to find the notions he is in need of, united in one systematic whole; and he has often neither time nor opportunity to question anyone in a position to give him information. He is thus generally compelled to fall back on his own resources, or on some guide easy to consult and capable of giving him the starting-point necessary in the majority of cases that arise. In fact he wants a book of “First Aid.” The present volume is intended to be such an auxiliary; in any event we trust that the beginner will find in it a practical guide, at least for the outset, on his journey, and possibly even through the inevitable Slough of Despond.

For various reasons some subjects of interest to an Investigating Officer have not been treated of exhaustively: a full discussion would encroach too extensively upon subjects outside his province, would be beyond the compass of a single book, or perhaps prove profitable to the criminal classes and harmful to the public.

The object of the book then is to show how crime is to be handled, investigated, and accounted for, to explain the motives at work and the objects to be attained. The legal aspect of arson, for example, and the punishment appropriate thereto, the principles of the criminal law, the laws of evidence, and the rules of procedure to be followed in the trial of a case are barely within our limits; but how the arson was accomplished, what means and assistance the incendiary had at his disposal, how its origin may be accounted for, the character of the criminal and—here comes in criminal psychology—the weight to be attached to the testimony of the witnesses, the consideration of errors in observation and deduction, to which judge, jury, and all who have to deal with crime, are exposed, these things are part and parcel of our subject.

Abstract legal knowledge is practically worthless where the Judge, Magistrate, or Policeman cannot make it fit in with facts, when he does not understand the witnesses, or appreciates them erroneously, when he assesses wrongly the worth of sense perceptions, when he is led astray by every bit of roguery, when he does not know how to make use of traces left behind by the criminal, and especially when he does not know the numberless facts systematized in Criminal Phenomenology.

It must be admitted that at the present day the value of the deposition of even a truthful witness is much over-rated. The numberless errors in perceptions derived from the senses, the faults of memory, the far reaching differences in human beings as regards age, sex, nature, culture, mood of the moment, health, passionate excitement, environment—all these things have so great an effect that we scarcely ever receive two quite similar accounts of one thing; and between what people really experience and what they confidently assert, we find only error heaped upon error. Out of the mouths of two witnesses we may arrive at the real truth, we may form for ourselves an idea of the circumstances of an occurrence and satisfy ourselves concerning it, but the evidence will seldom be true and material; and whoever goes more closely into the matter will not silence his conscience, even after listening to ten witnesses. Evil design and artful deception, mistakes and errors, most of all the closing of the eyes and the belief that what is stated in evidence has really been seen, are characteristics of so very many witnesses, that absolutely unbiased testimony can hardly be imagined. If Criminal Psychology teaches us this much, so the other parts of the subject show us the value of facts, where they can be obtained, how they can be held fast and appraised—these things are just as important as to show what can be done with the facts when obtained. The trace of a crime discovered and turned to good account, a correct sketch be it ever so simple, a microscopic slide, a deciphered correspondence, a photograph of a person or object, a tattooing, a restored piece of burnt paper, a careful survey, a thousand more material things are all examples of incorruptible, disinterested, and enduring testimony from which mistaken, inaccurate, and biased perceptions, as well as evil intention, perjury, and unlawful co-operation, are excluded. As the science of Criminal Investigation proceeds, oral testimony falls behind and the importance of realistic proof advances; “circumstances cannot lie,” witnesses can and do. The upshot is that when the case comes for trial we may call as many witnesses as we like, but the realistic or, as lawyers call them, circumstantial proofs must be collected, compared, and arranged beforehand, so that the chief importance will attach not so much to the trial itself as to the Preliminary Inquiry.

We venture to hope that this book will be of use to many besides Investigating Officers properly so called. Throughout the work the expression “Investigating Officer” is used as a compendious term to include all persons engaged in the investigation, official or non-official, of criminal cases. To all these, as well as to judges of all ranks and medical officers of all grades, this work is intended to appeal.

This volume is designed to be a working hand-book for all engaged or interested in Criminal Investigation. It was, by special permission, translated and adapted from the well-known work of Dr. Hans Gross, Professor of Criminology in the University of Prague and special lecturer on that subject in the University of Vienna. Translations have appeared in various languages, including French, Spanish, Danish, Russian, Hungarian, Serbian, and Japanese. Dr. Gross has been for many years “body and soul” an Investigating Officer. As M. Gardeil, Professor of Criminal Law at Nancy, says, in introducing the French translation to French Criminalists, Dr. Gross is “an indefatigable observer; a far-seeing psychologist; a magistrate full of ardour to unearth the truth, whether in favour of the accused or against him; a clever craftsman; in turn, draughtsman, photographer, modeller, armourer; having acquired by long experience a profound knowledge of the practices of criminals, robbers, tramps, gypsies, cheats, he opens to us the researches and experiences of many years. His work is no dry or purely technical treatise; it is a living book, because it has been lived.”

The book, following the author’s arrangement, has been divided into four parts. Part I. is designed, in the first place, to enunciate ‘general principles and qualities, inform the investigator in a general way of what assistance science can afford in the investigation of crime, and in a more detailed manner to show in just what cases expert knowledge may be effectively brought to bear. Advice is also given regarding the examination of witnesses, and accused and the inspection of localities. Parts II. and III. deal respectively with various heads of knowledge and certain handicrafts with which every Investigating Officer should be thoroughly well acquainted; while Part IV. gives information upon the methods of criminals in committing particular offences.

In the first edition the references amounted to no fewer than 1242, and were collected in an appendix. They utilized 67 pages of small type. This has now been omitted, as the majority of these references were to foreign and not easily accessible treatises. A number of references to standard works have, however, been retained in the text itself. In this adaptation of Dr. Gross’s book many works of experts have been referred to and from some of these excerpts have been made, but to no unreasonable extent. No quotation or extract has been taken from any author without acknowledgment in loco.

J. Collyer Adam

TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................. iii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS......................................................................................................... xi INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................... xiii PART I. GENERAL. CHAPTER 1. The Investigating Officer. i. General considerations ...............................................................................................................1 ii. The duties of the Investigating Officer.......................................................................................3 iii. Procedure of the Investigating Officer .....................................................................................3 iv. Preconceived theories .............................................................................................................10 v. Certain qualities essential to an Investigating Officer .............................................................15 vi. Knowledge of men ’.................................................................................................................21 vii. “Orientation ” Finding his bearings...................................................................................25 viii. Jurymen ........................................................................................................................30 ix. The “Expeditious” Investigating Officer..................................................................................32 x. Accuracy and precision in details..............................................................................................33 CHAPTER II. Examination of Witnesses and Accused. i. General considerations ..........................................................................................................36 ii. Examination of witnesses......................................................................................................39 A. When the witness desires to speak the truth................................................................... 39 1. Fundamental considerations ........................................................................................40 (a) Perception .................................................................................................................40 (b) Memory ....................................................................................................................49 2. Special considerations ....................................................................................................52 (a) Strong feeling as a cause of inaccuracy of observation ........................................52 (b) Inaccurate observations’ following wounds on the head ......................................... 55 (c) Differences in the observing powers, resulting from differences in the natural qualities and intellectual culture of the observer........................................................59 B. When the witness does not wish to speak the truth .............................................................66 C. Pathological lying ................................................................................................................74 iii. Examination of the accused .....................................................................................................75 CHAPTER III. Inspection of Localities. i. Preparation .................................................................................................................................84 ii. What to do at the scene of offence........................................................................................... 86 iii. The actual description of the scene of offence........................................................................ 89 iv. Search for hidden objects.........................................................................................................95 CHAPTER IV. Equipment of the Investigating Officer........................................................................................ 99 CHAPTER V. The Expert and how to make use of him. i. General considerations ........................................................................................................... 103 ii. The Medical Jurisprudent....................................................................................................... 107 A. In cases relating specially to Medical Jurisprudence ....................................................... 109 B. Preservation of parts of a corpse ”””’................................................................................. 110 C. Tattooing........................................................................................................................... 112 D. Mental affections...............................................................................................................115 E. Hypnotism .........................................................................................................................121 F. Colour blindness................................................................................................................ 126 G. The teeth............................................................................................................................ 127 iii. The Microscopist .................................................................................................................. 128 A. For traces of blood.............................................................................................................129 B. For excrement.....................................................................................................................131 C. For hair ......................................................................................................................... 131 D. For other cases relating to medicine ................................................................................ 138 E. For falsification of writing ................................................................................................139 F. For examination of cloths, etc........................................................................................... 140 G. For examination of stains ......................................................................................................142 1. On weapons and tools ....................................................................................................... 142 2. Dust ................................................................................................................................... 144 3. On clothes, etc. .................................................................................................................. 146 4. Mud on footwear ............................................................................................................... 147 iv. The Chemical Analyst .......................................................................................................... 148 v. The Expert in Physics ............................................................................................................ 150 vi. Experts in Mineralogy, Zoology, and Botany....................................................................... 153 vii. The Expert in Fire arms....................................................................................................... 155 viii. Handwriting......................................................................................................................... 157 ix. Photography.......................................................................................................................... 169 A. Importance of photography from a judicial point of view...............................................169 B. Particular cases of the employment of photography....................................................... 171 C. Recognition of criminals from their photographs .......................................................... 180 x. Finger prints........................................................................................................................... 185 A. Practical application of finger prints ............................................................................. 186 B. The manner of recording finger prints............................................................................195 xi. Geometrical Identification .................................................................................................... 196 CHAPTER VI. Legitimate Sphere of the Public Press........................................................................................ 198 PART II. KNOWLEDGE SPECIAL TO THE INVESTIGATING OFFICER. CHAPTER VII. Practices of Criminals. i. Disguising the face ................................................................................................................. 203 ii. False names ........................................................................................................................... 208 iii. Pretended illnesses and pains ............................................................................................... 215 A.Illness of witnesses or suspects summoned before the Court........................... 215 B. Sudden illness of accused or witnesses when under examination.................... 216 1. Shamming blindness ................................................................................................... 217 2. Do. deafness ................................................................................................................ 218 3. Do. epilepsy ................................................................................................................. 219 4. Do. paralysis ................................................................................................................ 221 5. Sham Fainting Fits....................................................................................................... 221 6. Pretended insanity.................................................................................................... 222 7. Shamming catalepsy......................................................................................................223 iv. Signs and signals .................................................................................................................. 223 A. Graphic signs ................................................................................................................... 224 B. Hand signals ..................................................................................................................... 231 C. Signals of recognition .............................:........................................................................ 235 D. Acoustical signs ............................................................................................................... 237 1. Calls and cries of warning ........................................................................................... 237 2. Phonetic communication in prison ...............................................................................238 E. Marks of stigmata on the face................................................................................. ......... 240 CHAPTER VIII. The Slang of Criminals........................................................................................................... 242 CHAPTER IX. Wandering Tribes. i: General considerations ........................................................................................................... 243 ii. Their methods of stealing....................................................................................................... 247 iii. Child stealing ....................................................................................................................... 251 iv. Their good points and their superstitions ............................................................................. 252 v. Instruments used for theft, poisoning, etc. ............................................................................. 254 vi. Attitude before the authorities ...........................................................................................256 vii. Their corporal characteristics ...............................................................................................258 viii. Gipsy proverbs....................................................................................................................260 CHAPTER X. Superstition..................................................................................................................................261 i. Superstition attaching to dead bodies and to objects abandoned at the place of the crime .................................................................................................................... 262 ii. Superstition attaching to objects carried on the person ......................................................... 263 iii. Divination and fortune telling by cards, etc. ........................................................................ 267 iv. Treasure finding, dreams, and chiromancy .......................................................................... 271 v, Superstitions regarding oaths ................................................................................................. 274 CHAPTER XI. Construction and use of Weapons. i. Fire arms ..................................................................................................................................276 A. General considerations ........................................................................................................277 B. Different kinds of fire arms .................................................................................................278 1. Guns (including Rifles)....................................................................................................278 (a) Shot guns....................................................................................................................278 a. The Barrel ..............................................................................................................280 1. The material of gun barrels ...............................................................................280 2. Number of barrels .............................................................................................281 b. Explosive action .....................................................................................................282 1. Muzzle loaders ..................................................................................................282 2. Breech loaders ..................................................................................................284 (b) Bullet guns.................................................................................................................285 a. Muzzle loaders .......................................................................................................287 b. Breech loading rifles...............................................................................................290 2. Pistols...............................................................................................................................291 3. Revolvers ....................................................... .................................................................291 C. Ammunition..........................................................................................................................294 1. Powder .............................................................................................................................294 2. The Projectile ...................................................................................................................294 D. Objects hit by a projectile.....................................................................................................295 ii. Cutting and stabbing weapons................................................................................................ 297 A. General considerations........................................................................................................ 297 B. Cutting and stabbing weapons properly so called ...............................................................299 1. Sword arms.......................................................................................................................299 2. Arms in the form of a knife............................................................................................. 300 3. Arms in the shape of a lance or spear...............................................................................300 4. Indian weapons.................................................................................................................300 PART III. CRAFTS SPECIAL TO THE INVESTIGATING OFFICER. CHAPTER XII. Drawing and Allied Arts. i. General considerations............................................................................................................ 301 ii. Drawing ..................................................................................................................................301 A. Plan of the interior of a house .......................................................................................... 304 B. Sketch of a dwelling ......................................................................................................... 305 C. Sketch of the environs of the house ................................................................................. 307 D. Sketch of a larger portion of country.................................................................................311 iii. Drawing on squared paper ................................................................................................... 314 iv. Modelling ......................................................................................................................... 315 v. Moulding and stereotyping ................................................................................................... 317 vi. Reproduction of drawings, etc. ............................................................................................ 319 vii Piecing together torn paper .................................................................................................. 319 viii. reserving and deciphering burnt paper ............................................................................... 322 CHAPTER XIII. Footprints and Other Impressions. i. Footprints .................................................................................................................................325 A. General notions ....................................................................................................................325 B. How to observe footprints ...................................................................................................325 1. Preparatory ......................................................................................................................325 2. Observation in an actual case ..........................................................................................329 C. Origin of the footprints.........................................................................................................336 1. Speed ...............................................................................................................................336 (a) Walking .......................................................................................................................337 (b) Running .......................................................................................................................344 2. The” Trace” itself ............................................................................................................346 (a) The walking image ......................................................................................................346 a. The line of direction .................................................................................................346 b. The line of march .....................................................................................................347 c. The line of the foot ...................................................................................................347 d. The length of the step ...............................................................................................350 e. Other kinds of walking .............................................................................................352 (b) The image of the foot ..................................................................................................354 D. Measurements to be taken .................................................................................................357 E. Reproduction of footprints ................................................................................................363 1. General ..........................................................................................................................363 2. Various methods ...........................................................................................................364 3. Methods recommended .................................................................................................367 ii. Other impressions ...................................................................................................................371 PAGE CHAPTER XIV. Traces of Blood. i. Search for traces of blood ........................................................................................................374 ii. How to register and describe’ traces of blood ........................................................................382 iii. How to detach traces of blood .............................................................................................. 385 iv. Search for traces of blood which there has been an attempt to remove............................... 391 v. Finger prints in blood ............................................................................................................ 395 vi. Preservation of blood marks ................................................................................................. 400 CHAPTER XV. Ciphers and other Secret Writings. i. General considerations ........................................................................................................... 403 ii. Various kinds of ciphers .........................................................................................................407 A. Numerical ciphers ................................................................................................................. 408 B. Alphabetical ciphers .............................................................................................................. 409 C. Syllable and word ciphers ......................................................................................................413 D. The Stencil or Black line cipher ............................................................................................414 E. Miscellaneous ciphers ............................................................................................................415 iii. Suggestions as to deciphering secret writing ........................................................................417 PART IV. PARTICULAR OFFENCES. CHAPTER XVI. Bodily Injuries and Poisoning. i. General considerations ........................................................................................................... 419 ii. Wounds by blunt instruments ................................................................................................ 420 iii. Wounds made by a sharp instrument ................................................................................... 422 iv. Wounds caused by fire arms ................................................................................................ 428 v. Marks on the bodies of persons strangled or hanged ..............................................................437 vi. Bodies found in the water ..................................................................................................... 440 vii. Injuries to corpses ................................................................................................................ 445 viii. Poisoning .............................................................................................................................446 ix. Abortion .................................................................................................................................453 CHAPTER XVII. Theft. i. General considerations ........................................................................................................... 454 ii. Thieves’ scouts and spies ....................................................................................................... 455 iii. Other preparations for the theft .............................................................................................460 iv. Thieves’ equipment ................................................................................................................462 v. Accomplices ...........................................................................................................................463 vi. The theft itself ....................................................................................................................... 478 A. Burglary and Housebreaking ............................................................................................482 1. General ’........................................................................................................................ 482 2. Entering by the window................................................................................................ 490 3. Entering by the door ..................................................................................................... 495 (a) Attacking the door itself .........................................................................................496 (b) Attacking the lock ...................................................................................................501 4. Entering in other ways ............................................................................................. 509 B. Pocket picking .................................................................................................................. 511 C. Sneak thefts .................................................................................................................. 513 D. Thefts in bazaars and shops ..............................................................................................516 E. Domestic thefts ..................................................................................................................516 F. Thefts through superstition ................................................................................................518 CHAPTER XVIII. Cheating and Fraud. i. General considerations ........................................................................................................... 520 ii. Falsification of documents .....................................................................................................521 A. Falsification of documents in general................................................................................521 B. Examination of false documents .......................................................................................524 iii. Counterfeiting seals, stamps, and coins ............................................................................... 532 A. Counterfeiting employment stamps ................................................................................. 532 B. Seals on letters, etc. .......................................................................................................... 539 C. Coining ............................................................................................................................. 540 iv. Horse Frauds ..........................................................................................................................540 A. General ..............................................................................................................................540 B. Special methods employed ................................................................................................541 1. The horse is shown under the most favorable conditions..............................................542 2. Utilization of certain physiological circumstances .......................................................545 3. Do. to psychological circumstances ............................................................................546 4. Fraud properly so called ................................................................................................549 (a) Frauds relating to the age of the horse ....................................................................549 (b) Fraud concerning the temperament of the horse ....................................................550 (c) Faking the color.......................................................................................................551 (d) Hiding defects ........................................................................................................552 (e) Concealment of illnesses ........................................................................................553 5. Employment of assistants .............................................................................................555 v. Cheating at games ..................................................................................................................557 A. General .............................................................................................................................557 B. Methods of the sharp .....................................................................................................559 vi. Frauds relating to antiquities and works of art ......................................................................564 A. Prehistoric objects .............................................................................................................567 B. Egyptian antiquities ...........................................................................................................567 C. Antique pottery ..................................................................................................................567 D. Glassware ..........................................................................................................................568 E. Old coins and medals ........................................................................................................569 F. Jewellery in precious metals ..............................................................................................570 G. Pictures ..............................................................................................................................570 H. Artistic engravings ............................................................................................................571 I. Enamels ..............................................................................................................................571 J. Articles of Earthenware, stone, and porcelain ....................................................................571 K. Manuscripts, books and bindings ......................................................................................572 L. Furniture and upholstery ...................................................................................................572 M. Weapons ...........................................................................................................................573 N. Miscellaneous ...................................................................................................................574 CHAPTER XIX. Arson. i. General considerations ........................................................................................................... 576 ii. Quasi spontaneous combustion ..............................................................................................578 A. Through physical causes .................................................................................................. 578 B. From chemical causes .......................................................................................................579 iii. Spontaneous combustion proper ...........................................................................................580 CHAPTER XX. Serious Accidents and Boiler Explosions. i. General considerations ........................................................................................................582 ii. Technical problems ................................................................................................................585 iii. Causes of boiler explosions .................................................................................................. 586 A. False theories ................................................................................................................... 586 B. Admissible theories .......................................................................................................... 586 INDEX........................................................................................................................................ 589